by Lawrence Wittner | Dec 14, 2023 | Peace & Disarmament
Although the unfolding humanitarian catastrophe in Gaza has captured the world’s horrified attention, the war in Ukraine has had even more terrible consequences. Grinding on for nearly two years, Russia’s massive military invasion of that country has taken hundreds of thousands of lives, created millions of refugees, wrecked Ukraine’s civilian infrastructure and economy, and consumed enormous financial resources from nations around the world.
And yet, despite the Ukraine War’s vast human and economic costs, there is no sign that it is abating. Russia and Ukraine are now bogged down in very bloody military stalemate, with about a fifth of Ukraine’s land occupied and annexed by Russia.
Meanwhile, polls show that an overwhelming majority of Ukrainians remain determined to continue the struggle to free all of Ukraine from Russian captivity. Indeed, an opinion survey in the fall of 2023 found that 80 percent of Ukrainians polled believed that under no circumstances should Ukraine give up any of its territory.
Similarly, in Russia, polls have found that a majority of the public appears content with the Putin regime’s military conquest of Ukraine and is opposed to any peace settlement that would relinquish Russian control of conquered Ukrainian land. Of course, the accuracy of Russian polls on the Ukraine War remains deeply suspect, for professing opposition to the war could easily lead to arrest, as it did for 20,000 Russians in 2022. Perhaps for this reason, numerous Russians polled refused to answer the question of where they stood on the war. One participant responded: “Thank you for the opportunity not to testify against myself.” In any case, in increasingly authoritarian Russia, public sentiment against war seems unlikely to alter the Putin administration’s determination to triumph on the battlefield.
Admittedly, in the United States, the major supplier of military and economic aid to beleaguered Ukraine, some developments point to declining enthusiasm for that role. The Republican Party has revived its 1930s policy (once termed “isolationism”) of appeasing military aggression by rightwing dictatorships, while leftists with an anti-American slant see a Russian victory as a useful way of somehow destroying “U.S. imperialism.” Nonetheless, unless Donald Trump and his MAGA followers sweep into power in 2024, it seems unlikely that the U.S. government or its NATO partners will entirely abandon Ukraine to a future under the jackboot of Russian military occupation.
Given these obstacles, is there a way to secure a just settlement of the Ukraine War?
There is, but it will take some creative action by the United Nations, the global organization that has been authorized to enforce international security.
Since the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine on February 24, 2022, the overwhelming majority of the world’s nations have repeatedly used their participation in the UN General Assembly to condemn the Russian invasion and to call for a just peace in Ukraine. For example, on the eve of the one-year anniversary of the war, the General Assembly, by a vote of 141 nations to 7 (with 32 abstentions), demanded that Russia “immediately, completely, and unconditionally” withdraw its military forces from Ukraine and called for a “cessation in hostilities” and a “comprehensive, just and lasting peace” based on the principles enshrined in the UN Charter. The UN Charter, of course, constitutes international law and bans “the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State.”
Even so, it is the UN Security Council that is tasked with enforcing international security, and Russia has used its veto in that UN entity to block UN action to end the Ukraine War.
The paralysis of the UN Security Council, however, need not continue. As Louise Blais, Canada’s ambassador to the United Nations from 2017 to 2021, has recently pointed out, Article 27 (3) of the UN Charter states that a party to a dispute before the Security Council shall abstain from voting in connection with the dispute. But, when it came to the Security Council’s votes on the Ukraine War, as Blais noted, “none of the 10 elected Security Council members had the courage, vision or backing to put forward a resolution” demanding abstention. According to Blais, the unwillingness of the four other veto-wielding members (Britain China, France, and the United States) to avoid a crippling Russian veto and, thereby, empower the Security Council to act, reflected their “zero interest in supporting such a move for fear it would limit their own power in the future.”
But there is ample precedent for limiting the veto in this fashion. The United Nations has a history of veto-wielding nations abstaining from Security Council voting when they are parties to a dispute. As Blais observes, between 1946 and 1952, Security Council members “regularly adhered to the obligatory abstention rule.” Only in later years did the five permanent Security Council members curtail the application of this practice.
In short, based on both international law and precedent, the UN Security Council has the authority to impose a settlement of the disastrous Ukraine War. What kinds of international action this would require would need to be determined by the world organization, just as the final terms of a peace agreement would ultimately need to be accepted by the contending parties. But, given the overwhelming support in the UN General Assembly for the withdrawal of Russian military forces from Ukraine and for a lasting peace agreement, such a peace settlement is likely to be a just one.
At the least, this would be a far better method of dealing with international conflict than the current full-scale war currently raging in Ukraine. And it could serve as a model for resolving other intractable disputes, such as the brutal Israel-Palestine conflict, as well.
This article was originally published in International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War’s Peace and Health Blog
Image Credits: UN Photo/Evan Schneider
by Citizens for Global Solutions | May 29, 2023 | Organizational Statement
Washington, D.C. On May 21, Citizens for Global Solutions (CGS) and Young World Federalists (YWF) joined UNESCO, the UN, and civil society throughout the world in commemorating the World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development. In doing so, we recognize the centrality of the intertwined values of cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue to humanity, as well as their necessity to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and foster world peace.
Why is it necessary to reflect on and honor Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development? Twenty years ago, the UN General Assembly established the World Day for Cultural Diversity for Dialogue and Development (A/RES/57/249). The necessity of recognizing this day is threefold:
First, the ability to practice and thrive in one’s culture is a universal, inalienable, and interdependent human right. Originally enshrined in the core human rights documents, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development now proclaims, “We pledge to foster intercultural understanding, tolerance, mutual respect, and an ethic of global citizenship… and recognize that all cultures and civilizations can contribute to, and are crucial enablers of, sustainable development.” Target 11.4 explicitly states the goal of “strengthen[ing] efforts to protect and safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage.”
Second, respect for cultural heritage and intercultural dialogue is essential for peace. According to the UN, 89% of all current conflicts worldwide occur in countries that lack strong intercultural dialogue. Further, “[t]hree-quarters of the world’s major conflicts have a cultural dimension. Bridging the gap between cultures is urgent and necessary for peace, stability and development.”
Third, culture plays a vital role in advancing economic growth and realizing other SDG targets, such as environmental sustainability. According to UNESCO, the specialized UN agency charged with fostering international cooperation regarding scientific, educational, and cultural issues, the creative and cultural fields generate 48 million jobs worldwide (particularly for young people), which account for 6.2% of all employment and 3.1% of global GDP. Regarding environmental targets, as one example, weaving intangible cultural heritage into agricultural and environmental policies can enhance sustainable food production and environmental conservation.
What international mechanisms animate these principles? The United Nations and its entities have furthered several instruments to promote cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue. For example:
- To more effectively analyze the role of cultural diversity in realizing the SDGs and promote its incorporation in national and international development plans, UNESCO created the UNESCO Culture|2030 Indicators framework, which provides an expansive overview of the intersection of cultural heritage and the SDGs.
- To strengthen public awareness of how cultural diversity can advance the SDGs and stimulate international cooperation to embed cultural rights and issues in public policy, UNESCO convened MONDIACULT 2022 conference in Mexico in September 2022. This groundbreaking summit led to the adoption of the “Declaration of Culture,” which identified culture as a “global public good” and called for public policies to protect specific cultural rights such as the right of indigenous communities to preserve their cultural heritage.
- To spur intercultural and interreligious dialogue aimed at reducing discrimination and fostering intercultural solidarity, the UN has advanced initiatives such as the United Nations Alliance Among Civilizations (UNAOC), which organizes activities around the themes of Education, Youth, Migration, Media, and Women as Peace Mediators.
Moreover, there are now true for a for accountability for violations of cultural rights. The International Criminal Court (ICC) recently affirmed the connection between cultural heritage and human rights by convicting the leader of a group who oversaw the destruction of religious and cultural sites and buildings in Timbuktu, Mali, of war crimes. The Mayan Q’eqchi’ community recently took the Guatemalan government to the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, alleging that the government’s approval of mining operations on their territory violated their collective rights to ancestral lands and natural resources.
How can we, as global citizens and world federalists, advance this agenda? One thing is certain; we must act quickly to foster this vital dialogue. As Kofi Annan said, “Without this dialogue taking place every day among all nations – within and between civilizations, cultures and groups – no peace can be lasting and no prosperity can be secure.” How can this vision become reality?
- Proactive government engagement. While the UN must continue to engage, it is also incumbent upon national governments to actively enhance intercultural dialogue. For example, governments at all levels can engage in cultural diplomacy bilaterally with counterparts and through the UN system, drawing on cultural heritage and diversity to enhance mutual understanding and cooperation on such global issues as climate change and conflic A recent high-level forum led to the adoption of the “Roadmap for the International Year of Dialogue as a Guarantee of Peace” a series of events throughout 2023, including multilateral discussions, debates, and youth activities.
- Civil society leadership. Civil society also plays a key role in this respect. For example, civil society can advocate at the ninth session of the Conference of Parties to the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, which will take place from June 6 to 8, 2023, to urge governments to adopt the 2005 Convention that provides a new framework to effectively protect and promote the diversity of cultural expression.
- Intergenerational action. At CGS and YWF, we recognize that promoting, preserving, and protecting cultural diversity and intercultural dialogue is a generational enterprise. World Federalist organizations are putting youth at the center of programming to elevate their voices. Below is a list of several initiatives undertaken by various world federalist organizations:
About Citizens for Global Solutions & Young World Federalists
Citizens for Global Solutions (CGS) is a non-governmental, non-profit, non-partisan membership-based organization that for more than 75 years has brought together a diverse collective of individuals and organizations with a common goal of a unified world predicated upon peace, human rights, and the rule of law. From championing ratification of the UN Charter upon our establishment in 1947 to supporting creation of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 25 years ago to advocating for global instruments to confront today’s enduring challenges of war and climate degradation, CGS recognizes that true progress is a generational enterprise. We invite like-minded individuals and organizations to join us in this mission.
Young World Federalists
Young World Federalists (YWF) is a global movement fighting to give humanity a voice. We envision a sustainable, just, and peaceful world through a democratic world federation. A world run by humanity, for humanity, providing equal opportunity to all on a thriving planet. YWF is currently engaged in a #SaveEarth campaign, which is focused on prosecuting crimes against the environment, taking effective action on climate change, and building a sustainable economy.
Contact: Rebecca Shoot, Executive Director, Citizens for Global Solutions at outreach@globalsolutions.org
by Citizens for Global Solutions | Apr 22, 2023 | Organizational Statement
Let this Century be the Century of the Rights of Mother Earth: Strengthening Global Governance is Key to Ensuring a Sustainable Future
Washington, DC- On April 22, Citizens for Global Solutions (CGS) joins the United Nations and civil society throughout the world in celebrating International Mother Earth Day. On April 22, 2009, the Bolivian government proposed a resolution that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) declaring every April 22 to be International Mother Earth Day. The resolution calls for “acknowledging that the Earth and its ecosystems are our home” and “promot(ing) harmony with nature and the Earth” to adequately address our environmental, economic, and social needs.
Evo Morales, the former President of Bolivia, strongly supported the adoption of this resolution, asserting during a meeting with the UNGA that “the twenty-first century is the century of the rights of Mother Earth and of all living beings.” During his speech, President Morales also stressed the importance of four, critical rights to which Mother Earth and all life on Earth are entitled: the right to life, the right to regenerate its biodiversity, the right to live a clear life (free of pollution and toxins), and the right to “harmony and balance with and among all and everything” (recognizing the interdependence of all life on Earth.) Furthermore, President Morales called for the incorporation of these four principles in the “Universal Declaration of the Rights of Mother Earth,” which was prepared during the World People’s Conference on Climate Change and the Rights of Mother Earth, hosted in Bolivia in 2010.
CGS and Young World Federalists (YWF) unconditionally support the principles and priorities enshrined in the Universal Declaration of the Rights of Mother Earth, and we strongly believe that ensuring a sustainable future for present and future generations can only be achieved by strengthening global governance and international environmental cooperation. Ramesh Thakur, former UN Assistant Secretary-General, argues that the “global governance deficit,” or the lack of global institutions that implement, interpret, and enforce international environmental laws and treaties, is among the factors that impede meaningful international action to address the climate crisis. Furthermore, Thakur asserts that a world order based on absolute national sovereignty- where countries are not held responsible for violating their environmental commitments- is a key cause of this lack of global environmental governance since it encourages political leaders to prioritize their own political interests over the well-being of Mother Earth.
How can we foster international cooperation and bolster global governance to address the climate crisis? One possible path forward is strengthening existing global governance institutions. This includes empowering the UNGA to pass binding international resolutions driving global emissions reduction efforts, particularly on the part of high emitting countries like the US and China.
Another pathway is to support and strengthen international legal institutions’ capacity to hold perpetrators accountable for environmental crimes. The Rome Statute, the foundational treaty of the International Criminal Court (ICC), notably includes environmental destruction within the definition of war crimes [Art 8.2(b)(iv)].Beginning in 2016, the Court announced that it would begin “considering cases involving environmental destruction, misuse of land, and land grabs as crimes against humanity.” The Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) also has communicated its intent “to cooperate and provide assistance to States, upon request, with respect to conduct which constitutes a serious crime under national law, such as . . . destruction of the environment.” Despite these notable steps, there are increasing calls to include “the crime of ecocide” as a stand-alone crime via amendment to the Rome Statute. To this end, the Independent Expert Panel for the Legal Definition of Ecocide, convened by the Stop Ecocide Foundation, formulated a draft definition of the crime, which would place ecocide on equal footing with the four crimes within the Court’s current jurisdiction: genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes, and the crime of aggression.
Establishing the international crime of ecocide also is a key recommendation of the Environmental Governance track of the Global Futures Forum (GFF), a civil society-led conference last March which convened hundreds of NGOs and individuals from around the world to further civil society and youth input in the Summit of the Future.
An additional environmental governance recommendation from the GFF is to encourage the International Court of Justice (ICJ) to more frequently address environmental issues. While the ICJ has heard cases touching on environmental matters, beginning with the notable Nicaragua v. Costa Rica judgment (holding that Nicaragua had a duty to compensate Costa Rica for “major environmental damages to its territory,” the Court has yet to deploy a powerful potential tool for environmental justice: Currently, the ICJ’s Chamber for Environmental Matters, established in 1993, has still not heard an environmental case due in part to states’ reluctance to classify a dispute as essentially “environmental” in nature.Furthermore, a UNGA resolution last month, sponsored by Vanuatu – an island country that has disproportionately experienced the effects of the climate crisis – could signify a decisive turning point regarding the ICJ’s involvement in environmental matters. Specifically, the resolution empowers the UNGA to seek ICJ adjudication in cases concerning countries’ commitments to address climate change and where countries intentionally or negligently cause environmental degradation that affects other countries’ environmental well-being, especially nations that are most vulnerable to climate change, like island countries.
Promoting meaningful international climate action may also require creating new global governance institutions, such as an International Court for the Environment. Experts have proposed a “Climate Club” that would establish a single international target carbon price and sanction non compliant countries and countries that do not participate. Furthermore, the Environmental Governance track of the GFF called for the establishment of an “Earth Governance Regulatory Body,” which would pursue a global Decarbonization Agenda to promote a just transition to a more sustainable economy.
We at CGS and YWF are confident that the 21st century will be, as Evo Morales declared, “the century of the rights of Mother Earth and of all living beings.” Yet ensuring a sustainable future for all who call Mother Earth their home will require unprecedented, yet necessary, international action to address the climate crisis. And that starts with strengthening global environmental governance.
“Earth Day cannot be a moment for reflection alone. It must compel action. As Wendell Berry cogently stated ‘the Earth is all we have in common.’ It is our shared responsibility as a global family to embrace the theme of 2023 Earth Day and invest in our planet.” – Rebecca A. Shoot, Executive Director, Citizens for Global Solutions (CGS)
About Citizens for Global Solutions & Young World Federalists
Citizens for Global Solutions (CGS) is a non-governmental, non-profit, non-partisan membership-based organization that for more than 75 years has brought together a diverse collective of individuals and organizations with a common goal of a unified world predicated upon peace, human rights, and the rule of law. From championing ratification of the UN Charter upon our establishment in 1947 to supporting creation of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 25 years ago to advocating for global instruments to confront today’s enduring challenges of war and climate degradation, CGS recognizes that true progress is a generational enterprise. We invite like-minded individuals and organizations to join us in this mission.
The Young World Federalists (YWF) are a global movement fighting to give humanity a voice. We envision a sustainable, just, and peaceful world through a democratic world federation. A world run by humanity, for humanity, providing equal opportunity to all on a thriving planet. YWF is currently engaged in a #SaveEarth campaign, which is focused on prosecuting crimes against the environment, taking effective action on climate change, and building a sustainable economy.
Contact: Rebecca Shoot outreach@globalsolutions.org
by Citizens for Global Solutions | Mar 6, 2023 | Organizational Statement
Empowering Women, Transforming Lives: The Power of Technology on International Women’s Day
Washington, DC- On March 8, Citizens for Global Solutions (CGS) joins the United Nations and civil society throughout the world in celebrating International Women’s Day, which is dedicated to celebrating the social, economic, cultural, and political achievements of women around the world. This year’s focus is on “women’s full and effective participation and decision-making in public life, as well as the elimination of violence, for achieving gender equality and the empowerment of all women and girls.”
The theme for International Women’s Day on March 8, 2023 has been announced as “DigitALL: Innovation and technology for gender equality.” This year’s theme is aligned with the focus of the upcoming 67th Session of the Commission on the Status of Women (CSW-67): “DigitALL: Innovation and technology for gender equality.” The theme highlights the importance of leveraging technology and innovation to promote gender equality and empower women and girls.
The benefits of including women and other marginalized groups in technology are numerous. Not only does promoting social equity vis-à-vis technology result in more creative solutions, but it also can drive innovation that meets women’s needs and promotes gender equality. Conversely, the exclusion of women from technology comes with significant costs. According to the UN Women’s Gender Snapshot 2022 report, women’s exclusion from the digital world has caused a loss of $1 trillion from the GDP of low and middle-income countries in the last decade, and this loss is projected to increase to $1.5 trillion by 2025 without action. Reversing this trend will require tackling the problem of online violence, which a recent study revealed 38% of women in 51 countries have personally experienced.
We at Citizens for Global Solutions and Young World Federalists firmly believe that reversing these trends can be best achieved through strengthening international laws to protect women and girls against online violence. Specific steps that can be taken include urging the UN General Assembly to continually push for universal compliance with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights– of which gender equality is a significant part. Furthermore, the UN General Assembly could convene to revise the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW)- informally known as the “International Bill of Rights” for women- by adding a provision addressing gender exclusion and discrimination in the technological sphere. Finally, UN member states could collectively agree to empower the Commission on the Status of Women by strengthening its relationship with the more representative UN General Assembly- not just ECOSOC, whose members don’t fully reflect UN member states. The Commission could also convene on a more regular basis and address the lack of substantial provisions regarding technology in the Beijing Platform for Action, a global blueprint for gender equality.
In commemoration of International Women’s Day, we look forward to continue working with civil society worldwide to strengthen grassroots and international efforts to safeguard gender equality both within and outside of the UN system.
About Citizens for Global Solutions & Young World Federalists
Citizens for Global Solutions (CGS) is a non-governmental, non-profit, non-partisan membership-based organization that for more than 75 years has brought together a diverse collective of individuals and organizations with a common goal of a unified world predicated upon peace, human rights, and the rule of law. From championing ratification of the UN Charter upon our establishment in 1947 to supporting creation of the International Criminal Court (ICC) 25 years ago to advocating for global instruments to confront today’s enduring challenges of war and climate degradation, CGS recognizes that true progress is a generational enterprise. We invite like-minded individuals and organizations to join us in this mission.
The Young World Federalists are a global movement fighting to give humanity a voice. We envision a sustainable, just, and peaceful world through a democratic world federation. A world run by humanity, for humanity, providing equal opportunity to all on a thriving planet.
Contact: Donna Park dpark@globalsolutions.org
by Citizens for Global Solutions | Feb 22, 2023 | Climate Justice
When it comes to the climate crisis, we are running out of time.
In 1994, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change established the Conference of the Parties (COP) to encourage UN member states to meet annually to discuss scientific data and technological advances related to climate change and implement international environmental agreements. Despite the global interest in addressing climate change, the next 29 years would be characterized by lukewarm international efforts to divert a climate catastrophe. In line with this record, the recent COP27 hosted by Egypt failed to secure cooperation on key issues and induce the necessary commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
One of the earliest international environmental treaties was the Montreal Protocol of 1987. The Montreal Protocol was a success because all 197 UN member states ratified the treaty and it effectively coordinated international efforts to eradicate about 99 percent of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). One major reason behind its success was that it established a “Multilateral Fund” to provide financial backing to countries, especially those who were not meeting their goals. It also prioritized the concept of “common but differentiated responsibilities” by giving developing countries more time to eliminate their production of ODS.
The Kyoto Protocol, which entered into force in 2005, was the first “legally binding” climate treaty that aimed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. However, it was not successful because the United States never ratified it and China was not required to commit to stringent emissions reduction targets. As this treaty required real economic sacrifices from industrialized countries, it was unable to effectively coordinate international efforts.
The most comprehensive environmental treaty to date was the Paris Agreement of 2015. The Paris Accords required all UN member states to commit to containing average global temperature increases to below 1.5°C above pre-industrial temperatures through setting nationally determined contributions (NDCs). However, this unenforceable agreement was vulnerable to the vicissitudes of domestic politics that led countries to renege on their climate commitments or abandon the treaty altogether, as the United States did under President Donald Trump. Consequently, most climate change experts say that countries’ emissions reduction plans are not sufficient and will not be executed quickly enough to contain temperature increases to 1.5°C.
What lies behind the failure of international climate treaties to secure meaningful action?
One factor is the disagreement between industrialized and developing nations over which should bear most of the burden for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Wealthy countries like the United States and Britain have contributed the most to cumulative emissions by normalizing environmentally unsustainable overconsumption. Beginning with the Industrial Revolutions, emissions stemming from the manufacturing of goods in European countries, supplied with raw materials from their colonies in Africa, South America, and Asia, skyrocketed. Industrializing countries like China and formerly colonized nations like India argue that, given the economic wealth and technological advancements acquired by others through industrialization and colonization, the wealthiest countries are the best equipped financially and technologically to lead efforts to address the climate crisis. They insist that demands to cut back on their own emissions are unreasonable, given their minor role in causing the current crisis, and that reducing their emissions will temporarily stifle the economic growth that wealthier countries have enjoyed.
Furthermore, the lack of global institutions that enact, interpret, and enforce international environmental laws and treaties seriously hinders coordinated international action. This “global governance deficit” lies at the root of international environmental treaties’ inability to catalyze collective action and hold countries to their climate commitments. A world order based on absolute national sovereignty therefore sacrifices a sustainable world future at the altar of national sovereignty and national political considerations.
To address these challenges, the world urgently needs international legal action that goes beyond the nation-state status quo. The UN General Assembly could be reformed to pass legally binding and enforceable resolutions through a voting process that also takes into account factors like population. The General Assembly could then pass binding resolutions requiring industrialized and high emitting countries like the United States and China to spearhead emissions reduction efforts and establish ecocide law to make environmental destruction an international criminal act, prosecuted by the International Criminal Court. Building an enforcement mechanism into international environmental treaties would mitigate our current climate crisis.
Promoting meaningful international climate action may also require creating new global governance institutions, such as an International Court for the Environment. Experts have proposed a “Climate Club” that would establish a single international target carbon price and sanction noncompliant countries and countries that do not participate.
In today’s warming world, the stakes have never been higher. To prevent an irreversible chain reaction of climate catastrophe, we must marshal our scientific acumen, political will, and technological prowess on a global scale to contain global temperature rise. Doing so will require addressing the politics of climate change policy within and among countries and the current ineffective system of global environmental governance, including its unenforceable international treaties.
The path forward will not be easy, for it will require unprecedented grassroots mobilization and political courage. But the task isn’t impossible. The far-sighted individuals who gathered in San Francisco to create the United Nations knew the difficulties that awaited them, but never surrendered to pessimism, hopelessness, or cowardice. They appreciated that the survival of humankind largely depended on their determination to forge a new path forward for international governance. We must do the same now with respect to the climate crisis, embracing effective global environmental governance and cooperation. The survival of 8 billion humans and all other species on our beloved Earth hinges on our success.
